Athletics

Lightning Strikes Twice for Usain Bolt

Bolt Defends Olympic Title and Status as World's Fastest Man; 'I'm Still the Best'

A hurdle race is a track event in which competitors run over fencelike obstacles called hurdles. The women shown above are competing in an indoor high-hurdle race.

The steeplechase includes hurdles and water jumps. At a water jump, runners step on the hurdle and then leap into the shallow end of the water pit to soften the landing.

In the long jump, athletes speed down a runway and leap from a board into a sand pit. A jump is measured from the near edge of the board to the closest mark the jumper makes in the sand.

The high jump requires an athlete to leap over a bar that rests on and between two poles. This jumper will kick her legs out and up to complete her headfirst leap.

The shot-put is a throwing event in which the athletes put (push) a metal ball called a shot. They hold the heavy shot against their neck and release it with a powerful push.

Athletes meeting are popular in many countries. Cyristal Palace in South London has an athletics stadium with artificial lights so events can continue into the night. 

Best of Usain Bolt

Athletics is a sport in which athletes compete in run­ning, walking, jumping, and throwing events. Track events consist of running or walking races of various distances. Field events are contests in jumping or throw­ing. Track and field meetings can be held indoors or outdoors. Men and women compete separately in a meeting.

Athletics is one of the most popular sports in the world. About 180 nations belong to the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF), the governing body of athletics. The IAAF recognizes world records in 65 men's and women's events. The organization accepts world records in metric distances only, except for the mile run. The table in this article lists the major men's and women's records.

The track and the field

proof synthetic material and can be used in rainy weather.

Indoor tracks have a wooden or synthetic surface, and they usually have banked turns. According to IAAF rules, the preferred measurement for an indoor track is 200 metres. Outdoor tracks are divided into six or eight lanes.

Runners must stay in their lanes for all races up to 400 metres and until they pass the first curve of 800-metre races. IAAF rules state that a lane should measure from 1.22 to 1.25 metres in width.

The field. Most field events take place in an area en­closed by the track. But in some meetings one or more throwing events are held outside the stadium to protect

other athletes and spectators who crowd the field area or to avoid damaging the artificial turf that covers many athletic fields. The field includes runways for the jumping events. It also has circular areas of material such as concrete or asphalt for most of the throwing events.

Track events

Track events include a variety of races. Short races, called sprints, stress maximum speed, while distance races require more endurance. In certain running races, such as the hurdles and steeplechase, runners must go over barriers. Other races, called relays, involve teams of runners.

Running races on an outdoor track cover distances from 100 metres to 10,000 metres. Indoors, races may measure from 50 metres to 5,000 metres. Cross country races and road races are run outside the stadium. Cross ­country competitors run over terrain such as hills and fields. Most road races are open to all runners, and many races award prize money to the winners. The most common distance for road races is 10 kilometres.

Hurdle races are events in which the competitors run over obstacles called hurdles. Most of these races have 10 hurdles spaced at equal intervals. There are two types of hurdle races, intermediate and high. Intermediate hurdles are 91 centimetres high for men and 76 centimetres high for women. Men’s high hurdles are 107 centimetres high. Women's high hurdles are 84 centimetres high. Intermediate-hurdle races cover 400 metres or 440 yards in men's and women's competition. Most outdoor high-hurdle races are 110 metres for men and 100 metres for women. Runners can knock over hurdles without penalty, but contact with a hurdle normally slows down the runner.

The steeplechase is a race, usually of 3,000 metres, over two kinds of obstacles, hurdles and water jumps. Runners must clear 91-centimetre hurdles 28 times. These hurdles are sturdier than the ones used in hurdles races, and runners may put a foot on top of them as they pass over them. Runners must cross water jumps seven times. A water jump consists of a hurdle and a water filled pit 3.66 metres square. The steeplechaser steps onto the hurdle and leaps across the water. The pit is 70 centimetres deep at the foot of the hurdle and slopes up to track level. Most steeplechasers come down in the water at the shallow end of the pit to soften their landing.

Walking races are events in which athletes must follow certain rules of walking technique. The front foot must touch the ground before the rear foot leaves the ground. While the foot is touching the ground, the leg must be unbent for at least one moment Walkers are entitle to one warning for improper form before they are disqualified. Walking races, also called race walking, may take place on a track or a road. Most international men’s walking races cover distances of 20,000 metres or  50,000 metres. Women's world records are recognized for two distances, 5,000 metres and 10,000 metres.

Relays are run by teams of four runners. The first runner carries a baton about 30 centimetres long. After running a certain distance, called a leg, the athlete hands the baton to the next team member. This exchange must occur within a zone 20 metres long. If the runners do not exchange the baton within this zone, their team is disqualified.

The most common relays are run at distances of 400 metres or 1,600 metres. The IAAF also keeps world records for relays of 800 metres, 3,200 metres, and for men only 6,000 metres. In these relays, all four member of a team run an equal distance.

Field events

Field events take place in specially prepared areas, usually within the oval track. Typical field competition consists of four jumping events and four throwing events. The jumps are the long jump, triple jump, high imp, and pole vault. The throwing events are the discuss, hammer, javelin, and shot-put. Women do not compete in the pole vault or hammer throw. The IAAF does not recognize the women's triple jump.
Jumping events. In the long jump and triple jump, the athletes jump as far forward as they can. In the high jump and pole vault, competitors leap over a bar as high as possible.

The long jump, once called the broad jump, is com­pleted in a single jump into a pit filled with sand. To begin the long jump, the competitor sprints down a long runway and leaps from a take-off board. If the athlete steps past the board before jumping, the jump is a foul. A jump's length is measured from the front edge of the take-off board to the nearest mark the athlete makes in the sand. When there are many competitors, each one is allowed three jumps, and a certain number of leaders qualify for three more. When fewer athletes compete, each one is allowed six jumps. If two jumpers leap the same distance, the winner is the one with the next-best jump.

The triple jump, originally called the hop, step, and jump consists of three continuous jumps, the first two completed on the runway. On the first jump, the athlete takes off on one foot and lands on the same foot. On the second jump, the athlete lands on the other foot. At the end of the third jump, the athlete lands on both feet in a pit of sand.

High-jumpers and pole-vaulters try to propel themselves over a long thin crossbar held up by two posts  called uprights. The athletes land on a cushion of foam rubber. If a jumper knocks the crossbar off the uprights, the jump counts as a miss. Three consecutive misses eliminate the jumper. The winner is the one who clears the greatest height. In case of a tie, the winner is the one with the fewest misses at that height. If still tied, the win­ner is the one with the fewest overall misses.

A high jumper runs toward the bar from any angle within a large, semicircular runway. The athlete may use any style of jumping, but he or she must take off from one foot. In the most popular modern style, called the Fosbury flop, jumpers go over with their back to the bar and their head clearing first. The style was named after American high-jumper Dick Fosbury, who introduced it in the late 1960's.

A pole vaulter uses a long pole usually made of fibreglass. He begins his vault by sprinting down a run­way, carrying the pole with both hands. As he nears the vaulting pit, he rams the far end of the pole into a wood or metal box embedded in the ground. The pole bends while he hangs with his back to the ground and his feet up. As the pole straightens, helping to thrust him into the air, he pulls himself higher and turns his body to face the ground. Before he releases the pole, he gives a final push with his arms to add to his height.

Throwing events require athletes to propel an ob­ject as far as they can. Competitors in the discus, ham­mer, and shot-put all throw from inside a circle. In the discus and hammer events, athletes throw from an en­closure, called a cage, to protect spectators from wild throws. In the javelin event, the athlete runs down a run­way marked on the field and throws the javelin before reaching a foul line. In each event, the thrown object must land within a marked area. If two competitors throw the same distance, the tie is decided by the next best throw.

A discus is a saucer-shaped object usually made of wood with a metal rim. The men's discus measures about 22 centimetres in diameter and weighs at least 2 kilograms. The women's discus is about 18 centimetres in diameter and weighs at least 1 kilogram. The athlete grips the discus with one hand, spins around about 11 times, and releases it with a sidearm motion to make it sail through the air.

A hammer consists of a steel wire with a metal ball at­tached to one end and a handle fastened to the other end. The entire hammer weighs 7.26 kilograms and measures about 120 centimetres long. Using both hands, the thrower grasps the handle and spins around three or four times before releasing it.

A javelin is a spear made of metal or wood. The men's javelin measures from 2.6 to 2.7 metres long and weighs at least 800 grams. Women throw a javelin that is 2.2 to 2.3 metres long and weighs at least 600 grams. The thrower holds the javelin by a cord grip near the centre, runs with it, and then releases it with an overhand throw while running.

A shot is a metal ball. The men's shot measures about 12 centimetres in diameter and weighs at least 7.26 kilo­grams. The women's shot measures about 10 centime­tres in diameter and weighs at least 4 kilograms. Competitors put (push) the shot rather than throw it. The shot must be held against the neck to prevent any throwing motion. The athlete begins with a strong shove from one leg and finishes with a powerful push of the arm.

The decathlon, heptathlon, and pentathlon

The decathlon, heptathlon, and pentathlon are combined competitions, in which an athlete competes in several different events over a period of one or two days. The athletes receive a score for their performance in each event, based on IAAF scoring tables. The winner is the athlete who receives the highest total score.  Thus the competition champion is the best all-around athlete not necessarily the best competitor in any single event.

The decathlon is a 10-event competition for men. It takes place over two days. On the first day, the partici­pants compete in the 100-metre run, long jump, shot-put, high jump, and 400-metre run. On the second day they compete in the high hurdles, discus, pole vault javelin, and 1,500-metre run.

The heptathlon is a seven-event competition for women. On the first day, they begin with the high hurdles, followed by the high jump, shot-put, and 200 metre run. On the second day, they compete in the long jump, javelin throw, and the 800-metre run.

The pentathlon, a one-day competition of five events is rarely held today. The heptathlon replaced the pen­tathlon for women in 1981. The men s pentathlon events are the long jump, javelin throw, 200-metre run, discus throw, and 1,500-metre run.

Competition

Organizations. The IAAF governs international ath­letics. It conducts the athletics World Championships and cooperates with the International Olympic Commit­tee in staging the track and field events of the Olympic Games. Other organizations conduct international meet­ings, national championships, and restricted champion­ships, such as university, college, regional, club, and school meetings.

Types of competition. The most important interna­tional meetings are the Olympic Games, which started in 1896, and the World Championships, which began in 1983. The Olympics are held every four years. The World Championships are also held every four years. Other major international meetings include the African Championships, the Commonwealth Games, the European Championships, the Pan American Games, and the World Cup. Many nations compete against each other in annual dual meetings (competitions between two teams).

Track and field. A typical track meeting has several events taking place at the same time. Officials conduct each event according to its particular rules. A race re­quires a starter, several judges at the finish line, and sometimes as many as a dozen timers. Electronic equipment is normally used in place of some judges and tim­ers in major meetings. In field events, judges measure jumps and throws, and watch for fouls. In some events, judges also check to see that athletes are following the rules.

Many meetings take place in a single day, but the Olympics and the World Championships schedule events over more than a week. Large championships include so many athletes that they cannot all compete at once. In these meetings, the athletes must qualify for the finals in preliminaries. Eight competitors normally qualify or the finals of track events run in lanes. Most field event preliminaries reduce the number of finalists to 12.

History

Beginnings. The first foot race probably took place thousands of years ago. A foot race is described in the Greek epic poem the Iliad, which was probably com­posed in the 700’s B.C. A foot race was the only event in the first Olympic Games, held in Greece in 776 B.C. Athletics was introduced in England in the 1100's but did not become popular until the 1800’s.

Revival in the 1800's. Foot races along the roads became common in England during the 1500's, but races on measured tracks did not begin until well into the 1800’s. Modern athletics began in the schools of England. Eton held an interclass match in 1837. In 1864, Cambridge University competed against Oxford University in the first intervarsity athletics event. The annual English championships began in London in 1866.

Several other nations held championships before 1900. ln 1895, the New York Athletic Club met the London Athletic Club in the first notable international meeting  in 1896, Athens, Greece, hosted the first modern Olympic Games. Although the athletic performances at Athens were not outstanding, the Olympics stimulated grate interest in the sport. Women's competitions, which were not part of the first Olympic Games, also began during the late 1800’s.

The early and mid-1900's. In 1912, 16 countries agreed to form the IAAF to govern men's athletics. An International organization for women's competitions was formed in 1917. Separate international women's Championships were held until 1928, when women were admitted to Olympic competition.

During the 1920s, long-distance runner Paavo Nurmi of Finland raised athletics to international popularity. He broke world records 35 times and won 9 Olympic gold medals and 3 silver medals. Babe Didrikson of the United States popularized women's athletics. Didrikson won two gold medals and a silver medal in the 1932 Olympic Games. In the 1936 Olympics, Jesse Owens of the United States won four gold medals and retired with world records in seven events. Early in the 1940's, Cor­nelius "Dutch" Warmerdam of the United States cap­tured the imagination of the track and field world by pole-vaulting higher than 15 feet a total of 43 times.

During the 1950s, athletes broke all previous world records except Owens' 1935 long-jump mark. Among the greatest athletes in this midcentury surge were long-distance runner Emil Zatopek of Czechoslovakia, and shot-putter Parry O'Brien and discus thrower Al Oerter of the United States. Zatopek won 4 Olympic gold medals in athletics and held 10 world records at the same time. O'Brien broke the shot-put record 13 times and won 2 firsts, a second, and a fourth in the Olympics. Oerter won the Olympic discus throw four times.

Athletics today. The sport has changed greatly since the mid-1900s. Performances once thought to be impos­sible are common today. In 1954, the British runner Roger Bannister became the first person to run the mile in less than four minutes. Within the next 20 years, more than 200 men had run the mile in under four minutes. In the late 1980s, the 50 all-time best performances in each event included only a few from before 1980.

There are a number of reasons for this remarkable progress in athletics. They include increased competi­tion, especially in Europe, as well as improved training methods, equipment, and techniques. Traditionally, ath­letics has been an amateur sport. However, the rules have been broadened to allow athletes to receive large sums of money for endorsing athletic shoes or other products and for appearing in invitation events. The op­portunity to earn money has increased the level of com­petition.

Improved training methods help today's athletes per­form well. Training with weights gives athletes greater strength for throwing, jumping, and even running. New equipment has raised performance levels. Synthetic tracks, which have more spring, cut a runner's time by as much as one second per lap. The use of fibreglass vaulting poles instead of wooden ones has reduced Warmerdam's once amazing heights to secondary- school performance levels. New techniques also help. In the high jump, for example, the use of the Fosbury flop adds about 15 centimetres to most jumps.

Current athletics champions reflect the international popularity of the sport. The biggest names in men's ath­letics in the 1980s included hurdler Edwin Moses and sprinter Carl Lewis of the United States, distance run­ners Said Aouita of Morocco and Sebastian Coe of Great Britain, pole vaulter Sergey Bubka of the Soviet Union, and decathlon athlete Dal^y Thompson of Great Britain. In women's events, sprinter Marita Koch and sprinter and long jumper Heike Drechsler of East Ger­many were major figures in the 1980's. Also important were sprinter Florence Griffith Joyner and long jumper and heptathlon competitor Jackie Joyner-Kersee of the United Slates.

Related articles

Events: Cross-country, Marathon, Decathlon, Pentathlon, Discus throw,   

Pole vault, Hammer throw, Running, High Jump, shot-put, Hurdling, Walking

Javelin, 

Biographies: Bannister, Sir Roger; Thorpe, Jim; Coe, Sebastian; Thompson, Daley; Owens, Jesse; and Zaharias, Babe Didrikson

Outline

Athletics: The track and The field

Track events: Running races, Hurdle races,  The steeplechase, Walking races, and Relays

Field events: Jumping events and Throwing events

The decathlon, heptathlon, and pentathlon

Competition: Organizations, Types of competition and Athletics meetings

History: Beginnings, Revival in the 1800's, The early and mid-1900's and Athletics today

Questions

What is one function of a Judge in a field event?

Where did modern athletics begin?

Which running races do not take place on a track?

Who was Cornelius Warmerdam?

How is the winner of a combined competition determined? What is the international governing organization for athletics? How do medley relays differ from other relays?

What are a few causes of the progress in athletics performances since the mid-1900's?
What was the triple jump originally called?